Yesodei haTorah - Chapter 2

The Rambam mentions the attributes “glorious” and “awesome” because they are the source of love and fear, respectively. When a person contemplates God's glory, he will be aroused to love, and when he appreciates His awesomeness, He will be motivated to fear.

Sefer HaMitzvot (positive commandment 3) and Sefer HaChinuch (mitzvah 418) consider the love of God to be one of the 613 mitzvot of the Torah.

Sefer HaMitzvot (positive commandment 4) and Sefer HaChinuch (mitzvah 432) consider the fear of God to be one of the 613 mitzvot of the Torah.

The question has been raised: How can one command an emotion or a state of mind? A person who loves, loves; one who fears, fears. We cannot express feelings on demand. The resolution is evident from the Rambam’s words: The Torah commands us to contemplate and meditate upon concepts that will evoke the desired feelings.

The Perush explains that there are two motivations for love and fear:
a) The benefit or difficulty that a person will receive;
b) The appreciation of the positive qualities for which a person should be loved, or his greatness of personality for which he will be held in awe.
Similarly, with regard to our relationship with God, there are times when our Sages and Rabbis encourage the love of God in appreciation for the good He does for us, and emphasize the importance of fearing Him because of the punishments He can bring upon us. Though these concepts are true, when a person loves or fears God for these reasons, he is really loving himself and fearing his own harm. He is not concerned with God, but rather what God will do for (or to) him. Here, the Rambam is teaching us how to reach the higher and more complete levels of love and fear, to love and fear Him in appreciation of His true being.

God’s wisdom is manifest in the creation of the world, as Proverbs 3:19 states: “God established the world with wisdom.”

In Sefer HaMitzvot (Positive Commandment 3), the Rambam writes: “When one loves someone, he will laud him and praise him and call others to befriend him.... Similarly, if you truly love God,... you shall surely call the simple and the unlearned to know the truth... as did Abraham.”

Yearning and thirst come from feelings of separation and distance. On the one hand, the comprehension of Godliness produces feelings of satisfaction and pleasure. (Note the Rambam’s comments in Sefer HaMitzvot, loc. cit., quoted below.) Nevertheless, since, as the Rambam states in Chapter 1, Halachah 9 and Halachah 8 of this chapter, it is impossible to comprehend God in His totality, the more a person comprehends, the more he will realize how God transcends his understanding, and the greater the yearning he will feel.

Fear and awe are natural responses to the revelation of Godliness. Note Isaiah 2:18: “And they shall go into the clefts of rocks and the caverns of the earth out of fear of God and the glory of His majesty.” The Sifri, Berachah, similarly describes how the Jews responded in trembling when Moses revealed to them God’s awesome greatness.

This reflects our Sages' advice (Berachos 30b, cited by the Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chayim 93) that in preparation for prayer, a person should “meditate on the greatness of God and the humble nature of man.”

As explained above, the Rambam is speaking here about the higher level of fear that results from the comprehension of God’s greatness. It must be noted that in Sefer HaMitzvot (Positive Commandment 4), the Rambam speaks of the mitzvah of fearing God in terms of fearing punishment: “We should not be complacent, but consider the [possibility of] punishment from Him at all times.” Similarly, in his Commentary on the Mishnah, he reckons belief in reward and punishment as the eleventh of his thirteen principles of faith.
The two concepts are not mutually exclusive. A person in the early stages of the service of God will be more concerned with himself. Therefore, the fear of receiving punishment for failing to obey God’s will may motivate him more than any other concerns. Ultimately, however, a person should seek to attain the deeper conception of fear, awe of His unsurpassed greatness. See Hilchot Teshuvah, Chapter 10.

In Hilchot Teshuvah 10:3, the Rambam writes: “One loves the Holy One, blessed be He, only through the knowledge one has of Him. The extent of one’s knowledge determines the degree of love, whether great or small.”
Similarly, in Sefer HaMitzvot (Positive Commandment 3), the Rambam writes:
... To meditate and contemplate on His mitzvot, His commandments, and His deeds in order that we will comprehend Him and experience the ultimate of pleasure in the comprehension of Him. This is the love for which we are obligated.
Note also Sefer HaMitzvot (Introductory Principle 9), which groups the love and fear of God as de’ot (states of mind or beliefs), and not middot (emotional qualities).
From these sources, it appears that the Rambam views the knowledge of God as more than a stimulus to arouse love for Him. Through attaining the knowledge of God, one fulfills the mitzvah of love. The bond a person establishes with God through the comprehension of His qualities is the bond of love we are obligated to establish with Him.
On this basis, we can understand why the Rambam explains “important principles regarding the deeds of the Master of the worlds” in these chapters. The Mishneh Torah is a book of law and does not include philosophical and metaphysical principles unless they are halachot, directives for practical behavior. Hence, the statement that it is necessary to contemplate God’s greatness to achieve love would appear sufficient. Nevertheless, the Rambam continues, elaborating on Ma’aseh Merkavah and Ma’aseh Bereishit (the subject matter of the next three chapters), because the knowledge of God attained through the study of these halachot constitutes the fulfillment of the mitzvah of loving God (Likkutei Sichot, Va’etchanan, 5748).

In one of his responsa, the Rambam explains the importance of studying the movement of the heavenly bodies, and relates: “Rabbi Meir has stated in a baraita: ‘Contemplate His deeds, because in this manner, you will recognize He who spoke, and thus brought the world into being.’”
The commentaries have not found a source which quotes this baraita with this exact text. The closest source cited is the Sifri, Va’etchanan, which the Rambam quotes (albeit with slight variations) in Sefer HaMitzvot (Positive Commandment 3). Certain texts of the Sifri also attribute this teaching to Rabbi Meir. The Sifri states:
“And these words... shall be upon your hearts.” Why is this verse stated?
[In resolution, it can be explained that] it is previously stated: “And you shall love God, Your Lord, with all your hearts.” Since one does not know how to attain the love of the Holy One, blessed be He...
the Torah continues: Place “these words... upon Your hearts.” In this manner, you will recognize the Holy One, blessed be He.
In Sefer HaMitzvot (quoted above) the Rambam describes the mitzvah of the love of God based on the Sifri and also mentions contemplation “of His mitzvot, His commandments, and His deeds.” Thus we see that both the Sifri and Sefer HaMitvot also recommend meditation on the Torah, while here the Rambam stresses contemplation of God’s greatness as manifest in the creation alone.
When comparing this halachah in its totality to Sefer HaMitzvot, it would appear that here, the Rambam is speaking of higher levels of love and fear of God. His conception of the ultimate relationship man can establish with God is one of knowledge. By appreciating the different levels of existence within creation, and realizing their limitations, one can appreciate how He transcends those limitations, and develop an awareness and knowledge of Him. With this knowledge, one fulfills the mitzvah of love.

In the Guide for the Perplexed (Vol. II, Chapter 10), the Rambam explains these three categories within the context of the statement (Bereishit Rabbah 68:17), “An angel exists in a third of the world.” The Rambam explains that the realm of the angels is one third of the types of existence.

I.e., the body.

I.e. the soul. The Rambam distinguishes between shape (tavnit in Hebrew — see Guide for the Perplexed, Vol. 1, Chapter 3) and form. He uses form to refer to the spiritual force that gives each entity its true character and nature. (See also Chapter 4, Halachah 8.)

“Anything which comes into being will [ultimately] cease to exist” (Guide for the Perplexed, Vol. I, Chapter 72). Since the body and the soul are essentially separate entities, though they will be combined for a certain time, they will ultimately separate and the entity will die.

As opposed to the souls. The soul of man is a spiritual entity above material existence. In a different manner, this concept is also true of the souls of animals and plants (Guide for the Perplexed, Vol. II, Chapter 10).

The entities in the first category die and/or decompose.

In the Guide for the Perplexed (Vol. I, Chapter 72), the Rambam explains that while all the creations of our world exist in four states of matter, the spheres and the stars exist in a different state of matter. In Chapter 3, the Rambam explains the nature of the existence of these spheres and the difference between their existence and our material existence.

Since their bodies are of a different nature than ours, the life-force invested in them is also different.

The Rambam is now speaking of spiritual existence which is of a totally different nature than our material existence.

The Rambam describes the existence of the angels in the Guide for the Perplexed (Vol. I, Chapter 49). He prefaces those remarks by saying, “You already know that comprehension of an entity above material existence is difficult for man.”
Our conception of existence is governed by our qualities of perception. An object must be perceived by our five senses or in some way detected by a scientific instrument for us to accept its existence. Nevertheless, we also realize that the totality of existence is not material, for we have thoughts and feelings which are real entities even though they do not take up space in the material world.
Nevertheless, though our thoughts and feelings are above our material existence, when compared to the spiritual realms, they are also considered material. Indeed, though they do not take up space, they produce brain waves which can be measured. Here, we are speaking of spiritual existence which transcends the material world entirely and cannot be comprehended by the human mind. We can, however, appreciate the nature of its existence and the influence it has upon us.

See Halachot 5-7.

The verse continues: “... His servants burning fire.” An entity cannot be both wind and fire. Rather, we are forced to say that neither of these states of matter are appropriate descriptions of the angels, and that both terms are metaphorical (Yalkut Shimoni, Shoftim 69; Ma'aseh Rokeach).

In the physical world, the limits of their physical bodies separate one entity from another. However, in the spiritual realms, where there is no concept of space or physical existence, what will separate one entity from another?
To reinforce the question with an example: As explained above, our thought processes can give us some understanding about spiritual existence. We see that thinking about one idea does not necessarily prevent us from considering another. Thus, though in regard to physical existence, two entities cannot exist in the same place, no such limitation exists regarding spiritual existence.

I.e., what differentiates one from the other is their spiritual level, the qualities which they reveal. (See the Guide for the Perplexed, Vol. I, Chapter 8.)
This represents genuine difference. Things that are separated only by physical limits are not really apart from each other. However, since these spiritual entities have nothing separating them but their spiritual level, the separation between them is absolute.

I.e., the higher level provides the life energy which maintains the existence of the lower level. In this manner, the Divine life force descends from its transcendent spiritual level to the point that it can bring into being and give life to material existence.

Our Sages relate that God has an infinite number of camps of angels, each one representing a different spiritual quality.

Though a similar statement is found in Shmot Rabbah 23:13, this concept is explained in greater depth in several places in the Zohar (Vol. 1, 23a; Vol. 2, 118b).

For there is no sense of space as we know it in the spiritual realms.

One spiritual quality is more refined than another. For example, intellect is considered “above” emotion since emotion is more self-oriented than intellect. Within the realm of intellect itself, there are levels of applied knowledge which are considered “lower” than abstract knowledge.

The Hebrew עלה and  עלול, translated as “cause” and “effect” are often used in philosophical texts to refer to stages in the downward progression of spiritual realms through which Divine influence descends to our physical world.

The Baal Shem Tov teaches that an entity's name expresses its life force and spiritual nature. Thus, the angels' different names are representative of the different spiritual qualities they express.

The chayyot are described in the vision of God's chariot (Ezekiel 1:14). The term chayyot means “life energy,” and is applied to them because they are the first level of creations to which the life energy from God descends. They are referred to as “holy” because they are the most elevated creations (Perush).

They are also mentioned in Ezekiel's vision (op. cit., 1:16). Their name means “spheres.” They are the source for the galgalim, the spheres mentioned in the following chapter. The Rambam explains Ezekiel's vision and, thus, the activity of the chayyot and ofanim in the Guide for the Perplexed (Vol. III, Chapter 3).

They are mentioned in Isaiah's vision (33:7). The term er'elim means “great ones” or “exalted ones.” The Temple altar is at times referred to as “Ariel” (Perush).

Chaggigah 13b interprets the term chashmal mentioned in Ezekiel 1:27 as “fiery beings which communicate.”

Isaiah's vision (6:2) mentions the serafim. Their name means “those who are burned” — i.e., they have such a burning love for God that they are consumed by their own fire (Likkutei Torah, Kedoshim).

The term mal'achim is generally translated as “angel” and is frequently found in the Bible — e.g., Genesis 16:7 and 28:12. Literally, it means “emissary” and refers to angels charged with specific tasks by God.

Though this term is also one of the names of God, it is also used to refer to the angels — e.g., Genesis 32:31 and Psalms 82:6. It means “judges” and refers to the manner in which the angels determine the amount of Divine influence that is allowed to descend to the lower realms (Kin’at Eliyahu).

We find this term used with reference to the angels in Psalms 29:1 and Job 1:6. When referring to them as “the sons of the elohim,” the Bible obviously implies that they are on a lower level than — but perform a function similar to — the elohim.

We find this term in the  Torah (e.g., Genesis 3:24) and in the prophets (Ezekiel 10:7-15). The Perush interprets the word keruv as meaning “king.” That text also explains that on the kaporet (the cover for the holy ark), these angels are depicted with a childlike face (Chaggigah 13b). This leads to the conclusion that their spiritual level was low, similar to the ishim, who communicate with man. In the Guide for the Perplexed (Vol. III, Chapter 3), the Rambam describes the keruvim as being on a higher spiritual plane.

This term is used with regard to the angels in Ezekiel 10:6. It means “men” — i.e., as the Rambam explains, angels close to man's level.

We do not find such a listing of the different levels of the angels in the Talmud or Midrashim. The list mentioned by the Rambam is found in the Zohar (Vol. II, 43a), although in a slightly different order.
The Sages of the Kabbalah explain that all existence is an expression of the ten sefirot (emanations) of Godliness. Though these sefirot reflect different qualities of God, and thus transcend entirely the level of the angels, we do see a certain commonalty between these mystic teachings and the Rambam's conception of the spiritual realms. (See also the Guide for the Perplexed Vol. II, Chapter 4, which mentions ten levels of spiritual existence.)

Ezekiel 1:26. (See Pirkei D'Rabbi Eliezer, Chapter 4; Torat Kohanim, Vayikra.)

God’s throne of glory refers to God as he lowers Himself to become King over creation. The Sages (ibid.) describe the chayyot as “carrying the throne” — i.e., serving as the media for the expression of this creative energy.

Similarly, when the Bible speaks of an angel appearing to man, it is generally referring to one of these ishim.
These statements shed light on a question that is frequently raised: Since God is omnipotent, why are these intermediate spiritual levels necessary? Many other thought systems explain that they are needed to provide a medium through which God’s creative energy can descend — each level of descent limiting and restricting that energy — until it is able to bring into being our limited world.
Judaism conceives of God as being able to bring this world into being in its present form from absolute nothingness, without any intermediaries. If so, what purpose do these intermediate levels serve? Why did God create them?
Among the explanations given for the existence of these levels is that they provide man with an opportunity to appreciate Godliness. God could have created the world without any intermediaries, but then there would be only two levels of existence: our material world and God’s essence. The two would be in direct contrast to each other, and the only way man could perceive Godliness would be through Godly intervention, the performance of a miracle that transcends the natural order of our existence.
The existence of these intermediate levels implies that there is a level of spirituality that is close to our existence. Furthermore, since our existence comes from that spiritual source, we each possess a natural desire to become conscious of that source. Since that level is not utterly above our existence, we can, through a process of refinement, appreciate that level and then, through added refinement appreciate the levels above it, continually progressing to higher levels of spiritual consciousness. Thus, it is possible for man to establish an awareness of spirituality — not only when God desires to reveal miracles, but — through his own efforts within the context of his personal existence.

Thus, when a person goes through the process of refinement mentioned in Chapter 7, Halachah 1, he can attain their level, and thus reveal prophetic insights to our world.

The concepts of life and death, as we know them — a soul being born within a body and leaving the body — surely do not apply to these spiritual beings who are above all corporeal form. Nevertheless, the angels can be considered “alive” in the true sense of the word. They are conscious beings, in which Godly energy is invested. (See Halachah 10, which explains the use of the adjective “living” with regard to God Himself.)

Our intellects are contained within bodies whose physical being restricts their functioning. We conceive of ideas in physical terms, and even our most abstract thoughts are limited to a time-space continuum. The angels’ powers of conceptualization are not restricted by those limits. Therefore, they can attain greater awareness of the Creator.

I.e., the degree of refinement of each entity determines the extent of its capacity to perceive God.

The Hagahot Bnei Binyamin contrast this statement with Chapter 3, Halachah 9, which states that the stars’ and the spheres’ comprehension of God is “in accordance with their level and greatness.” Nevertheless, there is a difficulty with this understanding. The term “greatness,” when used with regard to the spheres and stars, appears to refer to physical size. That appreciation surely cannot apply with regard to these forms, who are spiritual entities with no physical bodies whatsoever.
In this context, it must be noted that our translation follows the published text of the Mishneh Torah. Authoritative manuscripts of the text have a different version of this halachah, substituting גדלו in place of גדלם. According to that reading, the phrase would mean: “with none appreciating Him according to His true greatness.”

Pirkei D’Rabbi Eliezer (Chapter 4) states: “Even the holy chayyot, who stand next to the throne of His glory, do not know the place of His glory.” The Sifri (B’ha’alotcha 103) interprets Exodus 33:20: לא יראני אדם וחי — “Neither man nor the chayyot can see Me.” (See also Chaggigah 13b.)

As explained in Chapter 1, Halachot 3, 10, God’s existence is of a totally different nature than that of all other entities. Every creation is, by definition, limited to the manner of existence in which it was created, and cannot conceive of anything beyond that framework. Thus, no being can conceive of Him as He exists for Himself, above creation.

We use the term “grasp” both with regard to holding an article in one’s hand and intellectual comprehension. This implies that there are certain parallels between the two. Just as in physical terms, the size of one’s hand determines the size of the articles one can grasp, so does the nature of one’s thought process determine which concepts one can comprehend. The less restricted one’s thought processes are, the easier one is able to comprehend abstract ideas.
Similarly, with regard to the spiritual realms, each level has fewer limits than the level below it, and thus is able to perceive higher levels of Godliness.

I.e., His attributes, the powers that brought the world into being.

I.e., the entire creation in its totality. His knowledge encompasses the potential for all existence. Furthermore, since He is above time, He appreciates how this potential can become actual. Thus, there is nothing that comes into being that He does not know, nor can there be anything that He does not know, which can come into being (Guide for the Perplexed, Vol. III, Chapter 20).

The tenth of the Rambam’s Thirteen Principles of Faith is: “That He... knows the deeds of man and does not turn away His attention from them.” However, there is no conflict between that statement and our halachah, which describes Him as all-knowing: knowing everything that transpires, not only man’s deeds.
In the Thirteen Principles of Faith, the Rambam’s statements about God’s knowledge serve as an introduction to the principle that follows: the concept of reward and punishment. (The Mishneh Torah deals with God’s knowledge in that context in Chapters 5 and 6 of Hilchot Teshuvah, where the Rambam also refers to the concepts stated here.) In the present halachot, the Rambam focuses on God’s relationship with the world at large. He mentions God’s knowledge in order to clarify that God did not withdraw Himself from the world after creation.
There are perspectives which maintain that although God created the world after bringing the natural order into being, He abandoned contact with the world. According to such a conception, just as God is an entity above the world, the world is an entity separate from God. The Rambam negates that concept entirely, explaining that even after creation God knows the totality of existence, and through this knowledge shares a bond with even the most insignificant being. (See the Guide for the Perplexed, Vol. III, Chapters 16-21 for further explanation of the concepts touched on in this and the following halachah.)

This halachah continues the conceptual theme of the previous halachah. The connection God shares with the world is one of knowledge. However, God’s knowledge must be different from ours. Otherwise, many different conceptual difficulties would arise.
First, as the Rambam states explicitly in this halachah, were Divine knowledge to resemble our own, there would be a problem of multiplicity — there would be another true entity aside from God — i.e., His knowledge. Also, as explained in the Guide for the Perplexed (ibid.), this would imply change within God. To avoid these difficulties, the Rambam explains that although God knows our world, the manner in which He knows differs from human knowledge.
The subjective nature of our beings prevents us from ever appreciating anything else as it really is. Because the subjects about which we desire to know are separate entities from our thinking processes, we can never achieve true objective knowledge.
This does not apply with regard to God. Since, as explained below, He is one with His knowledge, He can recognize the truth of His being as it is.

See the Guide for the Perplexed (Vol. I, Chapter 68), which explains our thinking processes as follows: There exists a man (the knower) who has the potential to think. There is an object about which he desires to know (the subject of knowledge), and the process of conceptualization (the knowledge). Though at the moment a person conceives of a concept all three are joined together, before and afterwards they exist as separate entities.

This unity transcends all concepts of unity that exist in the material realm. We conceive of unity as the joining together of two essentially separate entities. Here, we are speaking of an essential unity in which no concept of separation can possibly exist. (See also Chapter 1, Halachah 7.)

When there is the possibility of death — the separation of the soul from the body.

God, His life, and His knowledge would all be true existences, independent of each other. Thus, each could be considered to be a “god.” Furthermore, as the Rambam states while discussing this concept in Chapter 8 of his introduction to Pirkei Avot (Shemonah Perakim), there would a multitude of other gods, for His power and all His other attributes would also be considered as gods.

In the Guide for the Perplexed (Vol. I, Chapter 68), the Rambam explains that we see a parallel to this concept in our thinking processes. At the time we conceive of an idea, all three entities, “the knower, the subject of knowledge, and the knowledge,” are joined together. There is no difference between potentiality and actuality with regard to God, and this unity exists at all times.

Thus one’s life and his being are separate.

He appreciates the potential for the creation as it exists within Himself. In the Guide for the Perplexed, Vol. III, Chapter 21, the Rambam explains this concept with the metaphor of an engineer who perceives the entire structure of a mechanism in his mind before drawing up the blueprints for it.

Although the concepts mentioned in this halachah are fundamental principles upon which much of the Rambam’s metaphysical conceptions rest, they have been the subject of much debate among the Rabbis.
By stating that God’s knowledge is fundamentally different from man’s, the Rambam ascribes to Him a perfection that surpasses the terms of our limited existence. Nevertheless, the description of Him as “the Knower, the Subject of Knowledge, and the Knowledge itself” defines Him. Any definition is itself a limitation and restriction, and hence is inappropriate for Him. True, these limitations transcend the boundaries of human existence, but they are, nevertheless, limitations.

Yevamot 121a refers to the sea as “water which has no end.” Thus, it serves as an appropriate metaphor for these concepts which are of an unlimited nature (Likkutei Sichot, Vol. 26). (See Chapter 4, Halachah 10.)

The latter term literally means, “the work of the chariot.” It is derived from the prophet Ezekiel’s vision of God’s throne (Chapter 1). Interestingly, Ezekiel himself does not use the word “chariot.” Nevertheless, the Talmud and the Rabbis universally associate this vision with that term. See Guide for the Perplexed, Vol. I, Chapter 70.)
In his introduction to the Guide for the Perplexed, the Rambam describes Ma’aseh Merkavah as “the study of God.” In his Commentary on the Mishnah (Chaggigah 2:1), he defines this term as referring to: “The knowledge of God and the explanation of existence as a whole, the existence of the Creator, His knowledge, His attributes..., the angels, man’s soul, his intellect, and the afterlife.”

Chaggigah 11b.

The commentaries note that Chaggigah 13a places other restrictions on the people to whom these concepts should be taught; among them, that a person be “the head of a Rabbinic court and one whose heart worries within” before he is exposed to these concepts.
(In the Guide for the Perplexed, Vol. 1, Chapter 34, the Rambam does not interpret these terms literally and explains that they refer to a humble man whose intellect is settled.)
Perhaps the Rambam considered the terminology he used here as general in nature, and thus inclusive of the other qualities as well.

I.e., the person should be observed for some time until he is judged worthy of receiving this wisdom.

Even to such an individual these concepts should not be explained in depth, but rather taught in concentrated form, relying that he will develop this knowledge on his own.

In his Introduction to the Commentary on the Mishnah, the Rambam adds that a person must pray to God and entreat Him to reveal these secrets to him. Thus, the Rambam emphasizes that the attainment of these levels of awareness involves spiritual refinement, and is not merely a process of intellectual development.

This explains the above restrictions. If a person errs in the comprehension of these ideas, he may conceive of God in a forbidden (and even heretical) manner. (See also the commentary on Chapter 4, Halachot 11, 13.)

Chaggigah 13a.

In the Guide for the Perplexed, Vol. III, Chapter 54, the Rambam uses this verse as a prooftext, supporting the concept that the ultimate levels of intellectual fulfillment that a person can reach will not be able to be communicated to others, nor should one make an attempt to do so.

Chaggigah, loc. cit.

I.e., just as honey and milk provide sensual pleasure, the comprehension of these subjects provides intellectual satisfaction (Rambam's Introduction to his Commentary on the Mishnah).

And not spoken about to others. The Rambam’s discussion of these concepts in these two chapters — even in the concentrated form in which they are stated — would appear to contradict the restrictions on their study mentioned here. By publishing them in a text, he made them accessible to the mass public without knowing who will read them. (See the commentary on Chapter 4, Halachot 11, 13, where an attempt is made to resolve this difficulty.)