Great Changes:

The 1700s, particularly the second half of the century, saw far-reaching changes in Jewish life. Most important, there was a veritable explosion in both the number of Torah scholars and the quality of their scholarship, previously so grievously affected by the Chmielnicki ravages. New movements and ideas, both adhering to Jewish tradition and deviating from it, arose and developed. For the first time in hundreds of years, a large number of Jews began to fulfill the ancient yearning to live in the Land of Israel. Great controversies erupted, some involving the greatest rabbis of the times. In the world at large, this, too, was a time of great upheaval. The American and French Revolutions, and the Age of Enlightenment, forever changed the face of European society — and also had an enormous influence on the Jewish world as well. The famous Yiddish saying, "As the Gentile world goes, so too does the Jewish one," was fully realized.

The Aliyah of Rabbi Yehuda HaChasid:

In 1700, the great scholar and tzadik Rabbi Yehuda HaChasid set out from Poland with 30 families to settle in Eretz Israel. Along the way, many people were inspired to join, swelling the number of hopeful olim to 1,500. However, in accordance with the Talmudic statement that Eretz Israel can only be acquired with suffering, they encountered many problems.1 First, 500 of the travelers died from the hardships of the journey, never reaching the shores of the Holy Land. Within a week of arriving in Eretz Israel, the seemingly indefatigable Rabbi Yehuda HaChasid suddenly passed away, leaving the Ashkenazic community leaderless. Rampant poverty and the difficulty of earning a living then caused a number of people to return to Europe. In addition, Polish Jews were unfamiliar with the Sephardic and Arab culture of the region, making it difficult to do business and form relationships. The climate of Eretz Israel, too, in which rain does not fall for six months, plus frequent droughts and epidemics, were conditions to which the European Jews had extreme difficulty adapting.

Eventually, the Ashkenazic community of Jerusalem fell deeper and deeper into debt to rapacious Arab landowners. When, in 1720, the Ashkenazim were unable to repay the astronomical sums owed, the Arabs destroyed the Old City synagogue of Rabbi Yehuda HaChasid. At that time, Ashkenazi Jews were either imprisoned or fled the city, and the Arabs forbade Ashkenazi Jews from living in Jerusalem, a ban that was in effect for 100 years. The destroyed synagogue is a famous landmark in the Jewish Quarter today. An arch was built over the site, and it is known as the Churvah Shul.

Rabbinic Controversies:

Aside from the great dispute between the Chassidim and the Misnagdim, to follow, there were three major rabbinic controversies. First, Rabbi Yaakov Emden versus Rabbi Yonoson Eybeschutz. Second, Rabbi Yaakov Emden versus Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzato (Ramchal). Third, the Get of Cleves. Scholars on each side of these controversies acted out of pure motives, feeling that what they did was for the sake of the Jewish people. However, as happens so often in these kinds of matters, lesser people became involved, some wanting personal gain and others seeking a fight, and things ballooned out of control.

Rabbi Yaakov Emden Versus Rabbi Yonoson Eybeschutz:

It is important to realize the atmosphere of the time in which this dispute took place. After the debacle of Shabsai Tzvi, the study of Kabbalah was deeply frowned upon, for it was Shabsai Tzvi's expertise in this area that led people astray. As a result, anyone engaging in this discipline faced much suspicion and hostility. Rabbi Yaakov Emden, a great scholar, was especially vigilant in combating any perceived Sabbatean influences.

In 1750, a prodigious, world-recognized scholar, Rabbi Yonoson Eybeschutz, accepted the rabbinate of the major German cities of Altona, Hamburg, and Wandsbeck. While there, he wrote amulets for sick people containing Kabbalistic formulae to advance a patient's health. Rabbi Yaakov Emden obtained one of these amulets and claimed that if certain letters were transposed, it would read "In the name of G‑d and His Messiah Shabsai Tzvi." A great controversy ensued, with many prominent rabbis taking sides. Eventually, unscrupulous people entered the fray, even involving the ruler of the area in the dispute. Rabbi Yonoson was forced to vacate his rabbinical post, and suffered much persecution. The matter finally ended when Rabbi Yonoson died in 1764, and Rabbi Yaakov passed away in 1776. Since then, Jews have viewed both of the disputants as being motivated solely for the honor of G‑d, with no right or wrong in this issue.

Rabbi Yaakov Emden Versus Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto (Ramchal):

Rabbi Luzzatto was born in Italy, and at a young age became a great Torah scholar. A great Kabbalist, his profound insights attracted selected disciples. Due to the great fear of a recurrence of Sabbateanism, Rabbi Luzzatto fell under suspicion. Forced to stop teaching Kabbalah and leave his native Italy, Rabbi Luzzatto moved to Amsterdam, where he continued studying Kabbalah. Rabbi Yaakov Emden vehemently attacked him for this study, and Ramchal immigrated to Eretz Israel, where he died in 1747 at age 40.

In his brief lifetime, Ramchal published many great works, including the Mussar classic Mesillas Yesharim, a step-by-step guide to reaching the highest levels of saintliness. The primary book for the study of Mussar, time has not dulled its message. After its publication, the Vilna Gaon stated that if the author were alive, the Gaon would have traveled on foot to meet him. The Gaon himself paid a hefty sum for a copy of the sefer, and reviewed it many times.2 Among Ramchal 's other philosophical and Kabbalistic works are Derech HaShem, Daas Tevunos, and Kalach Pischei Chochmah, all of which are highly popular today. A famous theme of Ramchal, which runs throughout his sefarim, is that the purpose of creation is for G‑d to do the greatest good to the beings He made.3

The Get of Cleves:

In 1766, a great controversy regarding a get (bill of divorce) took place, involving some of the greatest rabbis of the time. Fortunately, others did not intervene in the quarrel, so it was conducted in a civil manner.

A young couple married on a Thursday, and on the Sabbath the husband fled, taking his entire dowry. He was found the next day and rationalized his strange behavior by saying that he was seized by an inexplicable fear. Several days later, he demanded to divorce his wife, saying he had to flee the country because his life was in danger. The rabbinical court of Cleves, Germany granted the divorce, whereupon the man sailed to England. When the strange story spread, numerous rabbis considered the get invalid, because the husband's bizarre behavior qualified him as a shoteh, a mentally incompetent individual who may not divorce his wife. Other rabbis disagreed, saying that the husband's actions did not categorize him as a shoteh.4 Ultimately, the validity of the get was upheld, but as a result of the extensive scholarly discussion regarding the case, there was much clarification regarding what behaviors cause a person to be considered a shoteh, a matter of great relevance today.