Who was the first European traveler to bring an account from China? If you guessed Marco Polo, you’d be wrong. Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela set out from Spain sometime in the 1160s, a century before Marco set out from Venice in 1271. His travel journal provides a rich and invaluable account of how Jews and their neighbors lived in much of Europe and Asia.
“I journeyed first from my native town to the city of Saragossa, and from there by way of the River Ebro to Tortosa.”
Thus Rabbi Benjamin the son of Jonah of the land of Navarre begins his lengthy travelogue, known to Jewish history enthusiasts as The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela.
The exact date of Rabbi Benjamin’s departure from Tudela, in northern Spain is not known, but his journey lasted over a decade. He returned home in 1173 CE, bringing his travel notes with him. A contemporary, whose name is not preserved by history, obtained the diary after Rabbi Benjamin’s death. He edited and compiled the notes into a manuscript, which has been widely read, translated into several languages, and studied till today.
In his introduction, the anonymous editor writes:
Rabbi Benjamin … passed through many remote countries, as is related in his book. In every place which he entered, he made a record of all that he saw, or was told of by trustworthy people—matters not previously heard of in the land of Sepharad [Spain]. Also he mentions some of the sages and illustrious men residing in each place … This Rabbi Benjamin is a wise and understanding man, learned in Torah and halachah, and wherever we have tested his statements we have found them accurate, true to fact and consistent, for he is a trustworthy man.1
Most later scholars doubt the accuracy of some of Rabbi Benjamin’s tales, which border the realm of fantasy. But the general consensus is that The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela is among the most valuable primary sources of the 12th century, a treasure trove of information about life in those days, both within and outside of the Jewish community.
What motivated Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela to undertake such an arduous journey? Over the past several centuries, scholars have attempted to answer this question, coming up with assorted theories. In this article, we will explore possible answers.
Commerce
Nothing is known about Rabbi Benjamin’s personal life. We don’t know how old he was at the beginning of his journey, nor whether he left any family behind. It is likely, however, that Rabbi Benjamin was a merchant. His route followed the known commercial routes of the time, and much of his writing covers the state of commerce wherever he went. For example, he reports about Montpellier, France:
This is a place well situated for commerce. It is about a parasang from the sea, and men come for business from all over, from Edom (Christendom), Ishmael (Arabia), the land of Algarve (the southwest tip of the Iberian Peninsula), Lombardy, the dominion of Rome the Great, from all the land of Egypt, the Levant, Greece, France, Asia and England. People of all nations are found there doing business through the medium of the Genoese and Pisans.2
Of Amalfi, Italy, he writes:
The inhabitants of the place are merchants engaged in trade, who do not sow or reap, because they dwell upon high hills and lofty crags, but buy everything for money. Nevertheless, they have an abundance of fruit, for it is a land of vineyards and olives, of gardens and plantations, and no one can go to war with them.3
Rabbi Benjamin was especially interested in the occupations practiced in the Jewish communities he visited. For example, he describes the Jews of Thebes (Central Greece) as, “The most skilled makers of silk and purple cloth throughout Greece.”4
He also reports that Jerusalem “contains a dyeing-house, for which the Jews pay a small rent annually to the king, on condition that besides the Jews no other dyers be allowed in Jerusalem.”5
Destinations
In his travelogue, Rabbi Benjamin describes destinations in Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Constantinople, Syria, Lebanon, the Land of Israel, Babylonia, Arabia, Persia, Samarkand, Tibet, India, China, Abyssinia, Nubia, Egypt, Sicily, Germany, Bohemia, Slavonia, and Russia.
Scholars differ in their opinions on whether Rabbi Benjamin actually visited each of the places he mentions. It is possible that some of the descriptions are based on what he heard from others during his travels.
Observations
Rabbi Benjamin’s descriptions of most destinations are very brief, consisting of the travel time to the destination from the previous one, general description of the place, its population and their occupations, and a report about the size of the Jewish community, often listing its leaders by name.
For example, the entry about Antioch in modern-day Turkey reads:
Thence [from Malmistras] it is two days' journey to Antioch the Great, situated on the river Fur (Orontes), which is the river Jabbok, that flows from Mount Lebanon and from the land of Hamath. This is the great city which King Antiochus built. The city lies by a lofty mountain, which is surrounded by the city-wall. At the top of the mountain is a well, from which a man appointed for that purpose directs the water by means of twenty subterranean passages to the houses of the great men of the city. The other part of the city is surrounded by the river. It is a strongly fortified city and is under the sway of Prince Boemond Poitevin, surnamed le Baube. Ten Jews dwell here, engaged in glass-making, and at their head are R. Mordecai, R. Chayim, and R. Samuel.6
Larger cities and communities are described in much more detail. For example, Rome is allocated six paragraphs, where Rabbi Benjamin mentions “many wonderful structures in the city, different from any others in the world,”7 such as “eighty palaces belonging to eighty kings who lived there” and “Colosseum, in which edifice there are 365 sections, according to the days of the solar year.”8
Constantinople is also allotted more space, with wonder-filled descriptions of its riches:
King Emanuel built a great palace for the seat of his Government upon the sea-coast, in addition to the palaces which his fathers built, and he called its name Blachernae. He overlaid its columns and walls with gold and silver, and engraved thereon representations of the battles before his day and of his own combats. He also set up a throne of gold and of precious stones, and a golden crown was suspended by a gold chain over the throne, so arranged that he might sit under it. It was inlaid with jewels of priceless value, and at night time no lights were required, for everyone could see by the light which the stones gave forth. Countless other buildings are to be seen within the city. From every part of the empire of Greece, tribute is brought here every year, and they fill strongholds with garments of silk, purple, and gold. Like these storehouses and this wealth, there is nothing in the whole world to be found.9
When Rabbi Benjamin gets to the Land of Israel, his descriptions shift from economic to more historical and sentimental. He points out the connection between his destination and the text of the Tanach. He also points out the locations of notable gravesites.
For example, he writes about Hebron:
The Gentiles have erected there six tombs, respectively called those of Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebecca, Jacob and Leah. The custodians tell the pilgrims that these are the tombs of the Patriarchs, for which information the pilgrims give them money. If a Jew comes, however, and gives a special reward, the custodian of the cave opens unto him a gate of iron, which was constructed by our forefathers, and then he is able to descend below by means of steps, holding a lighted candle in his hand. He then reaches a cave, in which nothing is to be found, and a cave beyond, which is likewise empty, but when he reaches the third cave behold there are six sepulchers, those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, respectively facing those of Sarah, Rebekah and Leah. And upon the graves are inscriptions cut in stone; upon the grave of Abraham is engraved, "This is the grave of Abraham"; upon that of Isaac, "This is the grave of Isaac, the son of Abraham our Father"; upon that of Jacob, "This is the grave of Jacob, the son of Isaac, the son of Abraham our Father"; and upon the others, "This is the grave of Sarah," "This is the grave of Rebecca," and "This is the grave of Leah." A lamp burns day and night upon the graves in the cave.10
Stories
Woven through Rabbi Benjamin’s own observations are stories he heard from other people. Perhaps the most intriguing is the story of the Persian king encountering Jews from the Ten Lost Tribes.
Fifteen years before Rabbi Benjamin’s arrival in Persia, the Persian city of Ruyy was attacked and looted by a tribe called Kofar-al-Turak. Rabbi Benjamin describes them as people “who worship the wind and live in the wilderness, and who do not eat bread, nor drink wine, but live on raw uncooked meat. They have no noses, and instead have two small holes, through which they breathe. They eat animals both clean and unclean, and they are very friendly towards the Israelites.”11
In response to the attack, the king of Persia gathered his army, hired a guide, and set off to find the Kofar-al-Turak. They traveled through the desert, lost their way, and ran out of food. Eventually, the survivors reached “the mountains of Naisabur, where Jews lived. They came there on the Sabbath, and encamped in the gardens and plantations and by the springs of water which are by the side of the river Gozan. Now it was the time of the ripening of the fruit, and they ate and consumed everything. No man came forth to them, but on the mountains they saw cities and many towers.”12
The king wanted to get to the other side of the river and see who lived there.
They searched and found a large bridge, on which there were three towers, but the gate of the bridge was locked. And on the other side of the bridge was a great city. Then they shouted in front of the bridge till a man came forth and asked them what they wanted and who they were. But they did not understand him until an interpreter came who understood their language. And when he asked them, they said, "We are the servants of the king of Persia, and we have come to ask who you are, and whom you serve." To which the other replied: "We are Jews; we have no king and no gentile prince, but a Jewish prince rules over us." They then questioned him with regard to the infidels, the sons of Ghuz of the Kofar-al-Turak, and he answered: "Truly they are our allies, and he who seeks to do them harm seeks our harm." Then they went their way, and told the king of Persia, who was much alarmed.13
Resorting to a strategy used by other rulers throughout history, the Persian king threatened to avenge himself on the Jews of the Persian Empire if he and his army were to come to any harm.
The Jews then took counsel together, and resolved to please the king on account of the Jews who were in exile in his Empire. Then the king entered their land with his army, and stayed there fifteen days. And they showed him much honor and also sent a messenger to the Kofar-al-Turak their allies, reporting the matter to them. Thereupon the latter occupied the mountain passes in force with a large army composed of all those who dwelt in that desert, and when the king of Persia went forth to fight with them, they placed themselves in battle array against him. The Kofar-al-Turak army was victorious and slew many of the Persian soldiers, and the king of Persia fled with only a few followers to his own country.14
One of the surviving soldiers repaid the Jews with trickery:
[He] enticed a Jew, whose name was R. Moses, to come with him, and when he came to the land of Persia this horseman made the Jew his slave. One day the archers came before the king to give a display of their skill and no one among them could be found to draw the bow like this R. Moses. Then the king inquired of him by means of an interpreter who knew his language, and he related all that the horseman had done to him. Thereupon the king at once granted him his liberty, had him clad in robes of silk, gave him gifts, and said to him, "If you will embrace our religion, I will make you a rich man and steward of my house," but he answered, “My lord, I cannot do this thing." Then the king took him and placed him in the house of the Chief Rabbi of the Isfahan community, Sar Shalom, who gave him his daughter to wife.15
Rabbi Benjamin concludes that he heard this story from R. Moses himself. Whether R. Moses was a reliable source is up to the reader to decide.
Purpose of the journey
There are many more fascinating observations and stories in Rabbi Benjamin’s travelogue, but they are beyond the scope of this article. For now, let’s come back to the question of why Rabbi Benjamin undertook his journey.
From his writing, it is evident that Rabbi Benjamin was a curious explorer, excited to share his discoveries with his community back home, in Spain.
But Marcus Nathan Adler, who translated The Itinerary into English in 1907, believed there was more to it than simple spirit of exploration. Reminding the readers that the journey took place during the Crusades, he writes:
The most prosperous communities in Germany and the Jewish congregations that lay along the route to Palestine had been exterminated or dispersed, and even in Spain, where the Jews had enjoyed complete security for centuries, they were being pitilessly persecuted in the Moorish kingdom of Cordova.
It is not unlikely, therefore, that Benjamin may have undertaken his journey with the object of finding out where his expatriated brethren might find asylum. It will be noted that Benjamin seems to use every effort to trace and to afford particulars of independent communities of Jews, who had chiefs of their own, and owed no allegiance to the foreigner.16
Thus, Rabbi Benjamin’s story was that of an exiled Jew, searching for a corner of the world where he and his community could escape persecution and find safety.
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